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In early 2022, nearly two years after Covid was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization, experts are mulling a big question: when is a pandemic over?

So, whats the answer? What criteria should be used to determine the end of Covids pandemic phase? These are deceptively simple questions and there are no easy answers.

I am a computer scientist who investigates the development of ontologies. In computing, ontologies are a means to formally structure knowledge of a subject domain, with its entities, relations and constraints, so that a computer can process it in various applications and help humans to be more precise.

Ontologies can discover knowledge thats been overlooked until now: in one instance, an ontology identified two additional functional domains in phosphatases (a group of enzymes) and a novel domain architecture of a part of the enzyme. Ontologies also underlie Googles Knowledge Graph thats behind those knowledge panels on the right-hand side of a search result.

Applying ontologies to the questions I posed at the start is useful. This approach helps to clarify why it is difficult to specify a cut-off point at which a pandemic can be declared over. The process involves collecting definitions and characterisations from domain experts, like epidemiologists and infectious disease scientists, consulting relevant research and other ontologies and investigating the nature of what entity X is.

X, here, would be the pandemic itself not a mere shorthand definition, but looking into the properties of that entity. Such a precise characterisation of the X will also reveal when an entity is not an X. For instance, if X = house, a property of houses is that they all must have a roof; if some object doesnt have a roof, it definitely isnt a house.

With those characteristics in hand, a precise, formal specification can be formulated, aided by additional methods and tools. From that, the what or when of X the pandemic is over or it is not would logically follow. If it doesnt, at least it will be possible to explain why things are not that straightforward.

This sort of precision complements health experts efforts, helping humans to be more precise and communicate more precisely. It forces us to make implicit assumptions explicit and clarifies where disagreements may be.

I conducted an ontological analysis of pandemic. First, I needed to find definitions of a pandemic.

Informally, an epidemic is an occurrence during which there are multiple instances of an infectious disease in organisms, for a limited duration of time, that affects a community of said organisms living in some region. A pandemic, as a minimum, extends the region where the infections take place.

Read more: When will the COVID-19 pandemic end? 4 essential reads on past pandemics and what the future could bring

Next, I drew from an existing foundational ontologies. This contains generic categories like object, process, and quality. I also used domain ontologies, which contain entities specific to a subject domain, like infectious diseases. Among other resources, I consulted the Infectious Disease Ontology and the Descriptive Ontology for Linguistic and Cognitive Engineering.

First, I aligned pandemic to a foundational ontology, using a decision diagram to simplify the process. This helped to work out what kind of thing and generic category pandemic is:

(1) Is [pandemic] something that is happening or occurring? Yes (perdurant, i.e., something that unfolds in time, rather than be wholly present).

(2) Are you able to be present or participate in [a pandemic]? Yes (event).

(3) Is [a pandemic] atomic, i.e., has no subdivisions and has a definite end point? No (accomplishment).

The word accomplishment may seem strange here. But, in this context, it makes clear that a pandemic is a temporal entity with a limited lifespan and will evolve that is, cease to be a pandemic and evolve back to epidemic, as indicated in this diagram.

Next, I examined a pandemics characteristics described in the literature. A comprehensive list is described in a paper by US infectious disease specialists published in 2009 during the global H1N1 influenza virus outbreak. They collated eight characteristics of a pandemic.

Read more: New COVID data: South Africa has arrived at the recovery stage of the pandemic

I listed them and assessed them from an ontological perspective:

Wide geographic extension. This is an imprecise feature be it fuzzy in the mathematical sense or estimated by other means: there isnt a crisp threshold when wide starts or ends.

Disease movement: theres transmission from place to place and that can be traced. A yes/no characteristic, but it could be made categorical or with ranges of how slowly or fast it moves.

High attack rates and explosiveness, or: many people are affected in a short timespan. Many, short, fast all indicate imprecision.

Minimal population immunity: immunity is relative. You have it to a degree to some or all of the variants of the infectious agent, and likewise for the population. This is an inherently fuzzy feature.

Novelty: A yes/no feature, but one could add partial.

Infectiousness: it must be infectious (excluding non-infectious things, like obesity), so a clear yes/no.

Contagiousness: this may be from person to person or through some other medium. This property includes human-to-human, human-animal intermediary (e.g., fleas, rats), and human-environment (notably: water, as with cholera), and their attendant aspects.

Severity: Historically, the term pandemic has been applied more often for severe diseases or those with high fatality rates (e.g., HIV/AIDS) than for milder ones. This has some subjectivity, and thus may be fuzzy.

Properties with imprecise boundaries annoy epidemiologists because they may lead to different outcomes of their prediction models. But from my ontologists viewpoint, were getting somewhere with these properties. From the computational side, automated reasoning with fuzzy features is possible.

COVID, at least early in 2020, easily ticked all eight boxes. A suitably automated reasoner would have classified that situation as a pandemic. But now, in early 2022? Severity (point 8) has largely decreased and immunity (point 4) has risen. Point 5 are there worse variants of concern to come is the million-dollar question. More ontological analysis is needed.

Ontologically speaking, then, a pandemic is an event (accomplishment) that unfolds in time. To be classified as a pandemic, there are a number of features that arent all crisp and for which the imprecise boundaries havent all been set. Conversely, it implies that classifying the event as not a pandemic is just as imprecise.

This isnt a full answer as to what a pandemic is ontologically, but it does shed light on the difficulties of calling it over and illustrates well that there will be disagreement about it.

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A computer science technique could help gauge when the pandemic is 'over' - The Conversation

The American Institute of Mathematics (AIM), an independent nonprofit organization funded in part by the National Science Foundation (NSF), is moving to Caltech's campus from its current home in the Bay Area.

Founded in 1994 by John Fry, a math enthusiast and co-founder of Fry's Electronics, AIM organizes and funds focused collaborations among pure and applied mathematicians, theoretical biologists, computer scientists, physicists, and other scientists working on long-standing math problems. The institute is one of seven mathematical sciences institutes funded by the NSF.

"AIM's mission is to advance mathematics through collaboration. Like Caltech, we are committed to diversity, outreach, education, and research at the highest level," says AIM executive director and mathematician Brian Conrey. "We believe this is a wonderful institutional fit and look forward with great enthusiasm to our partnership."

AIM's workshops, its oldest program, take place throughout the year at AIM's headquarters and involve up to 30 people from various institutions. "Instead of a usual conference where people come and give talks, the workshops are aimed at solving a particular problem," says Caltech's John D. MacArthur Professor of Theoretical Physics and Mathematics Sergei Gukov, who has participated in several AIM programs and served on its scientific research board for many years. In fact, Gukov is one of more than 40 Caltech faculty members, postdoctoral scholars, and graduate students to have participated in AIM activities.

"Sometimes the problems are too hard to solve, but through the workshops you might discover small breakthroughs on the way to solving the larger problem," he says.

AIM also sponsors smaller collaborations called SQuaREs (Structured Quartet Research Ensembles), in which only four to six people meet for one week a year for three years. Recently, due to the pandemic, the institute also developed online communities where up to 100 mathematicians have been gathering to scribble equations and notes on virtual whiteboards.

"The online communities are a lot of fun and helped us stay together during the pandemic," says Gukov. "In general, AIM helps mathematicians and researchers make connections with other researchersand new connections in their own mathematical work to create something unexpected." Gukov credits his own experiences at AIM with seeding some of his most influential work in the field of knot theory and its connections to a branch of algebra called representation theory.

Gukov and many of his colleagues at Caltech say that the relocation of AIM to Caltech will benefit both parties. AIM will have access to the small, focused, and interdisciplinary communities of Caltech, while Caltech will benefit from the presence of a highly respected math institution.

"This will bring a large stream of the top mathematicians to Caltech," says Professor of Mathematics Elena Mantovan. "We will have new opportunities to interact with them and form new collaborations. This is a benefit to faculty, postdocs, students, and is good for the recruitment of new students. We are a small department with less than 20 faculty members, so this move is enormous for us."

Omer Tamuz, professor of economics and mathematics, agrees and thinks that the new partnership will transform Caltech into one of the top centers for math in the world. "Mathematics is a very social activity, and direct interaction with other mathematicians is crucial for our work. Bringing AIM to Caltech will roughly double the amount of mathematical activity on campus, giving us the benefit of interacting with hundreds of top mathematicians every year."

The AIM programs are also designed to make connections between pure and applied math and computer science. Chris Umans, professor of computer science, says having AIM at Caltech will boost interdisciplinary research.

"AIM nurtures the convergence of different areas of mathematics and allied fields, and this aligns very well with the culture at Caltech, where we are drawn to fundamental, hard problems and where mathematics runs through research endeavors across campus," he says.

"My colleagues and I are very excited to use AIM programs to build bridges across fields."

Harry Atwater, the Otis Booth Leadership Chair of the Division of Engineering and Applied Science, agrees. "The arrival of AIM at Caltech will build new bridges between math, applied math, and computational science, and will shine a spotlight on the role that mathematical thinking plays across all our departments and options," he says.

AIM, now housed in commercial space in San Jose, will be located on the eighth floor of Caltech Hall in the Institute's new Richard Merkin Center for Pure and Applied Mathematics, a research center and conference space that has been established in connection with AIM's move to Caltech, with support from Richard N. Merkin and the Merkin Family Foundation. The space, which is being renovated for use by AIM and to serve as a conference center for other Caltech divisions and departments, is slated for completion in early 2023.

Associated with the center will be three professorial appointments: the Richard N. Merkin Professor of Mathematical Finance, the Richard N. Merkin Distinguished Professor of Mathematics, and the Richard N. Merkin Distinguished Visiting Professor in Artificial Intelligence.

"Mathematical advances are the key to unlocking progress at the critical intersection of science and engineering," said Merkin, a Caltech trustee and founder and chief executive officer of Heritage Provider Network. "I'm very excited to see what happens as people from different fields and backgrounds gather to brainstorm and bringing fresh mathematical approaches to difficult problems. AIM and Caltech are natural partners, both magnifying their impact, and bringing multiple perspectives to the forefront on important challenges."

AIM is also well recognized for its educational outreach efforts and programs to support K12 students and teachers. The institute's core staff have helped establish and foster an extensive network of math teachers, students, and mathematicians around the country who regularly gather in groups, known as Math Circles, to promote mathematics education and training through math puzzles and problem solving. At Caltech, AIM will continue to grow its national outreach programs while also collaborating with Caltech's Center for Teaching, Learning, and Outreach and with local educational partners to "support joyful and meaningful math education in the L.A. area," says Brianna Donaldson, AIM's director of special projects.

Fiona Harrison, the Kent and Joyce Kresa Leadership Chair of the Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy and Harold A. Rosen Professor of Physics, says, "I was really moved by the broad range of faculty who have engaged with the institute and with AIM's potential to connect the fundamental mathematical underpinnings of many different scientific fields."

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American Institute of Mathematics Moves to Caltech - Caltech

Bioinformatics jobs involve analyzing and interpreting biology-related data. These professionals' work benefits hospitals and medical clinics, healthcare and pharmaceutical companies, biotechnology firms, and research institutions.

As a bioinformatics professional, you're equipped to design and develop the tools, methods, and systems to work with data. Bioinformaticians aid life-saving medicine development, study genes, improve crop productivity, and more.

Bioinformatics professionals work full-time in labs, offices, and research settings. They use statistics, programming, data management, and machine learning skills. They also understand biology and may specialize in a subdiscipline, like genomics or molecular biology.

The federal government, private corporations, and the public sector all employ bioinformatic professionals to analyze and interpret biological data. They also hire individuals who can create software and hardware to manage and assess large datasets.

Bioinformatics jobs may allow you to work remotely, depending on the position and employer.

According to Payscale, the average base salary in informatics is $87,000 per year as of March 2022. Education level, experience, industry, and location influence pay.

You can find top-paying bioinformatics jobs in companies and agencies focused on biotechnological research. Research scientists took home average salaries above $91,000 in 2021. Senior research scientists in biotechnology earned nearly $110,000 on average in early 2022.

Additional education and training prepare you for advanced and managerial bioinformatics positions and may boost your earning potential. Certificates and advanced degrees, such as a computer science master's degree, increase your knowledge.

By gaining insight into emerging technologies through continued education, you position yourself to grow in the field.

Earning a bioinformatics degree may lead to a job in agriculture and wildlife, computer technology, research, or biotechnology.

Bioinformatics jobs are varied and may be highly specialized. You'll find some of the more prominent jobs below.

Bioinformatics jobs in agriculture, zoology, microbiology, and wildlife biology involve assessing data related to plants, crops, and animal health.

You apply knowledge of statistics, computer science, and information technology at companies or in the public sector.

Bioinformaticians in these fields protect and study living organisms, optimizing interactions among them. Depending on the setting, you may work to increase food production, assess genetic variations, or improve land productivity.

Some roles include:

Bioinformatics jobs in computer and data science put your computational and analytical skills to work. In this discipline, you design new hardware and software to assess biological data.

Research and development, technology firms, and healthcare informatics companies may hire bioinformatics specialists to create proprietary software. You may also qualify to work as a biological data scientist in industrial settings.

Common jobs include:

Bioinformatics professionals in pharmaceuticals serve a vital role in the creation, development, and testing of new medications. Bioinformaticians in biotechnology might assess data needed to develop gene therapies and advance immunology.

You may improve existing processes and technologies and establish new data analysis methods. In both pharma and biotech roles, you work alongside fellow scientists and computational biologists to contribute to the field at theoretical and practical levels.

Pharma and biotech roles include:

Clinical bioinformatics data analyst

Project manager for bioinformatics

Human genetics bioinformatics scientist

Public-sector bioinformaticians may work for federal, state, and local governments to address public health and safety issues. The government also employs bioinformaticians in agriculture and wildlife-related roles.

In public sector roles, you may work to improve your environment and the world. Public sector bioinformatics positions also advance military medicine, inform national and regional policies, and contribute to agricultural production.

Job options include:

Bioinformatics scientist with the National Institute of Health

Bioinformatics analyst with a state hospital system

Computational biologist with a local or state department of public health

Research and academic bioinformatics jobs extend from the lab to the classroom. Colleges and universities may employ bioinformatics researchers in labs and as instructors.

Bioinformaticians at colleges and universities often work with public agencies and private companies. Through grants and collaboration, bioinformatics researchers and academics work with funders to tackle projects. For example, you might map the genes that cause a poorly understood disease.

Roles include:

Bioinformatics blends science and technology. You may find jobs in the private and public sectors with a bioinformatics degree.

Bioinformatics jobs involve interpreting data to address vital issues. Sound rewarding? If so, bioinformatics might be the right field for you.

Nicole Galan is a registered nurse who started in a general medical/surgical care unit and then moved into infertility care, where she worked for almost 10 years. She has also worked for over 13 years as a freelance writer, specializing in consumer health sites and educational materials for nursing students. Galan currently works as a full-time freelancer and recently earned her master's degree in nursing education from Capella University.

Nicole Galan is a paid member of the Red Ventures Education freelance review network.

Last reviewed March 22, 2022. Unless otherwise noted, salary data is drawn from Payscale as of March 24, 2022.

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Bioinformatics jobs: All of your options - ZDNet